42. See International Water Resources Management: Institutional and Legal Aspects, document ST/ESA/5, pp. 30 et seq. 41. On the difficulty of distinguishing between a political agreement on the conclusion of a contract and a legal pact of contrahendo, see also Wengler, paragraph 12, p. 334. In his last speech to the Helsinki Conference (CSCE) in 1975, Prime Minister Wilson described the Final Act of the Conference as a “moral obligation” and not an international treaty. Thus, the Act is not binding under international law, although it is clear from the historical context and the wording of the Final Act itself that participating States have some kind of obligation (“obligation”) to base their future conduct on the provisions of the Final Act. The law formulates norms, rules intended to determine the conduct of the State, but these rules have no legal character. This is apparently the assumption behind Wilson`s statement, to which many similar statements could be added. As will be seen, considerable State practice has developed, based on the same concept, indicating the existence of non-legal obligations (pre-legal, paralegal, moral, political) different from legal obligations. Is this a valid distinction, can a real distinction be made between legal and non-legal norms? If so, what makes the difference? What is the basis of the obligation in both cases? 111.
Meyer-Wöbse, Rechtsfragen des Exports von Kernanlagen in NichtkernwaffenStaaten (1979), pp. 61 et seq. Google Scholar; Courteix, , Nuclear Exports and Non-Proliferation (1978) p. 1. 63Google Scholar (although he calls the guidelines gentlemen`s agreements, he seems to interpret them as a bundle of unilateral (legal?) binding statements). 98. On the legal effect and effectiveness of the OECD Guidelines, see Baade, `The Legal Effects of Codes of Conduct for Multinational Enterprises`, 22 GYIL (1979), pp. 11-52, p. 29 et seq. Google Scholar 132.
This is often used as an argument for or against the legal nature of a particular obligation. See Rotter, op. cit. cit., paragraph 11, p. 415; Schweisfurth, op. cit. cit., No. 3, p. 691.
A rare example of a non-legal agreement published in the same way as an international treaty is the “Memorandum of Understanding” between the United States Department of Energy and the Department of Research and Technology of the Federal Republic of Germany on Cooperation in the Field of Coal Technology of 7 October 1977, published in the Federal Law Gazette (1977) II, 1239. This declaration is clearly not legally binding. Both sides intended to participate in a particular project: “Such an intention. are identified by signatures… (last paragraph of the statement). 4. McDougal, for example, criticizes the distinction between law and politics as “unreal” (“International Law, Power and Policy: A Contemporary Conception,” 82 Hague Reports (1953 I) pp. 137-259 at p. 144)Google Scholar.
On the other hand, Wengler seems to regret the possible erosion of the concept of legal obligation, cf. Wengler, “Rechtsvertrag, Konsensus und Absichtserklärung im Völkerrecht”, 31 Juristenzeitung (1976) pp. 193-197 to p. 197.Google Scholar 125. The choice of a non-legal form of obligation to avoid adverse effects in the event of non-performance is therefore not very realistic. See, however, the American attitude towards the Generalized System of Preferences, cited by Graham, op. cit. O., No.
88, p. 519. 71. Viral, , “Droit international et décolonisation devant les Nations Unies”, AFDI (1963) pp. 508-541, pp. 528 ff. Google Scholar. 26.
The so-called economic summits, which have become a common practice. 43. See Oellers-Frahm, `Die Fntentscheid des Internationalen Gerichtshofes im griechisch-türkisch Streit um den Festlandshelfel in der Aegaeis`, 18 Arch VR (1978/1980), pp. 375-392, p. 385 et seq. Google Scholar 91. Jackson, John H., World Trade and the Law of GATT (1969), pp. 755 et seq. Google Scholar 105.
An example of a provision in which this distinction is clearly made is Article 67, paragraph 1, of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions (text in 38 ZaöRV (1978) pp. 86 et seq.), which defines the protection of military elements of civil defence. While non-compliance with the conditions of protection usually only results in the loss of protection without being unlawful, a particular case of non-compliance is explicitly called an illegal act. 3. Voir Viral, « La deuxième décennie des Nations Unies pour le développement, Essai d’interprétation para-juridique », 16 AFDI (1970), pp. 9-33, pp. 9-33. 28 et suiv. Google Scholar; Schweisfurth, , « Zur Frage der Rechtsnatur, Verbindlichkeit und völkerrechtliche Relevanz der KSZE-Schlussakte », 36 ZaöRV (1976) pp.
681-726.Google Scholar. 24. Voir Virally, loc.cit., n. 3, p. 26; Müller, J.P., Protection of Légitime Expectations in International Law (1971), p. 251 et suiv. Google Scholar 46. Asamoah, op.cit., dans n. 17 passim ; Castañeda, op.cit., in n. 17 passim. 55.
Simma, « Methodology and Significance of the Work of the Veieinten Nations for the Further Development of International Law », dans Kewenig, , éd., The United Nations in Transition (1975), p. 79 à 102, p. 97 et suiv. Frowein, , « Der Beitrag dei internationalen Organizational zur Entwicklung des Vöolkerrechts », 36 ZaöRV (1976) pp. 147-167 à p. 152.Google Scholar 73. See Cadoux, , “The United Nations Organization and the Problem of Southern Africa, The Evolution of the Strategy of International Pressures”, 23 AFDI (1977) pp. 127-174.Google Scholar 70.
Cf. Khol, “system of report”, in Wolfram, , Prill, and Brückner, eds., op. cit. cit., in No. 18 pp. 48-58, pp. 53 ff. Google Scholar; United Nations action in the field of human rights, document ST/HR/2, pp. 169 et seq.
114. Dupuy, op. cit. cit., No. 17, p. 140; Viral, loc. cit., at No. 31, p. 21 et seq.; E/C.10/17, para.
159. 82. See Tomuschat, op. cit. cit., No. 23; Petersmann, “The New International Economic Order: Principles, Politics and International Law”, in Macdonald, Johnston and Morris, eds., op. cit. cit., n.
